Quaker Theology

Issues

  • Issue # 000 Early Printed 1982 – 1993 (3)

    An exhaustive Index of more than a decade of printed versions of “Quaker Theology,’ from 1981 to 1992, is provided initially. It gives issue numbers for the articles referenced. A table of all articles from all issues follows. All articles are in searchable pdf format.

  • Issue # 1 – Fall 1999 (7)

    The inaugural issue considers why Friends—despite their historic suspicion of theology—need disciplined reflection on religious experience to resist harmful ideas, understand their own faith, and participate meaningfully in ecumenical and interfaith dialogue. Its articles challenge the view that Quakerism began as a form of Puritanism, explore parallels between Quaker spirituality and Roman Catholic religious orders, recount one Friend’s journey toward an atheist Christianity, and examine the difficult questions the Kosovo War posed for the Quaker peace testimony. Together, these contributions introduce Quaker Theology as a forum for intellectually serious, spiritually grounded conversation about Quaker identity, diversity, and witness in the world.

  • Issue # 2 – Spring 2000 (7)

    This issue examines Quaker theology as an experiential, communal, and socially engaged practice rooted in inward spiritual encounter and the gathered meeting. Its articles consider why Friends should study theology, debate whether Quaker faith can remain coherent without belief in God, and assess a major report on the condition of American Quakerism. Two historical studies place early Friends within the broader Christian mystical tradition, comparing Quaker spirituality with sixteenth-century Spanish mysticism and examining George Fox alongside Catholic and Anglican mystics. Together, the contributions explore how inward experience, theological reflection, historical identity, and contemporary diversity shape Quaker faith and practice.

    Volume Two, Number One
    Editor: Chuck Fager
    ISSN 1526-7490

  • Issue # 3 — Fall 2000 (6)

    Issue #3 explores how Quaker theology developed and exerted influence during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Through studies of Rufus Jones, Caroline Emelia Stephen, the Progressive Friends, Conservative Quakerism, and the shared spiritual heritage of Quakers and Unitarian Universalists, the issue examines the tensions between tradition and modernity, insularity and engagement, and inherited doctrine and individual experience. Together, the articles show Quaker ideas helping to shape liberal religion, ecumenical Christianity, social reform, literature, pacifism, and modern understandings of spirituality.

    Volume Two Number Two
    Autumn 2000
    Editor: Chuck Fager
    ISSN 1526-7490

  • Issue # 4 — Spring 2001 (10)

    Issue #4 examines peace and violence, biblical interpretation, theological method, and the changing structure of Quaker religious community. Its contributors debate how Scripture can guide peacemaking, how race, gender, and social experience shape responses to violence, and how Anabaptist and Quaker theology might respond to postmodern thought. The issue also considers whether contemporary Friends are developing a decentralized “Quaker-wide web” of autonomous but interconnected meetings, held together by shared spiritual seeking, mutual respect, and a continuing commitment to peace.

  • Issue # 5, Fall 2001 (9)

    Issue #5 considers Quaker faith and witness in times of war, oppression, racism, and cultural conflict, with particular urgency following the attacks of September 11, 2001. Its articles examine the Peace Testimony after 9/11, the liberalization of American Quakerism during World War I, the complicated legacy of Western Quaker missions in Africa, Korean Quaker Ham Sok Hon’s resistance to tyranny, and the troubling involvement of some Indiana Friends in the Ku Klux Klan. Reviews and spiritual reflections on Robert Barclay and the sustaining power of stillness further explore the theological resources Friends may draw upon when confronting violence, injustice, and moral contradiction.

  • Issue # 6 — Spring 2002 (7)

    Explores the inward spiritual condition at the heart of Quaker faith and the diverse traditions through which Friends have understood it. Beginning with George Fox’s conviction that Christ can “speak to thy condition,” the issue examines the struggle to overcome ego and false authority through direct spiritual experience. Its articles connect Quakerism with Catholic Quietism and contemplative prayer, Taoist teachings on humility and nonviolence, and the formative ministry of George Fox. A critical study of the Peace Testimony also confronts the gap between Quaker ideals and complicated historical realities, calling Friends toward greater honesty about their theological inheritance and practice.

  • Issue # 7 — Fall, 2002 (8)

    Explores how Quaker faith and community can respond to war, evil, religious difference, and spiritual change. Its contributors advocate the abolition of war and interpret the Peace Testimony as active nonviolent resistance rather than passive withdrawal. Other articles consider Quaker worship and fellowship as Eucharistic practice, a journey from Quakerism into Eastern Orthodoxy, and spiritual connections with Indigenous Mexican ceremony. A critical review of a revised Quaker history emphasizes the importance of intellectual honesty and responsible preservation of the tradition. Together, the essays call Friends toward stronger communities, deeper theological reflection, and a more demanding commitment to peace.

  • Issue # 8 — Spring 2003 (8)

    Examines the close relationship between Quaker history and theology and the ways Friends engage with religious, political, and philosophical difference. Interviews with Quaker scholars explore the tradition’s diversity, institutional development, and the editing of its historical record. Other contributions consider ecumenical foundations for peace theology, the compatibility of materialism with Quaker ethics and practice, and a Catholic spiritual journey through Quakerism. A profile of Milton Mayer emphasizes individual moral responsibility, resistance to state authority, and the danger of gradually accommodating injustice. Together, the issue presents Quaker theology as a historically grounded but continuing conversation about truth, conscience, community, and peace.

  • Issue # 9, Fall 2003 (9)

    Presents a wide-ranging exploration of Quaker history, doctrine, spiritual experience, and responses to contemporary conflict. Its articles examine George Fox’s use of catechisms for religious education, early Quaker interpretations of Nimrod and the Tower of Babel, and a Quaker understanding of the nature and purpose of the Church. Personal narratives and memoir reviews explore healing, place, family tradition, and struggles with faith surrounding September 11. The issue also debates universal salvation and atonement while critically confronting theological justifications for American military power and the “war on terror.” Together, these contributions show Friends drawing upon Scripture, history, lived experience, and the Peace Testimony to address enduring questions of authority, salvation, community, and violence.

  • Issue #10, Spring 2004 (8)

    Investigates the development of American liberal Quaker theology and its relationship to social reform, religious pluralism, and nonviolent action. Two studies present Lucretia Mott as a formative liberal Quaker theologian whose understanding of the Inner Light, Jesus, and the present possibility of God’s kingdom provided a foundation for radical reform. A personal account of becoming both Muslim and Quaker explores interfaith identity, Sufism, peace, and shared spiritual practice. Other contributions debate property damage within nonviolent movements, criticize *The Passion of the Christ* for emphasizing physical suffering over the Gospel message, and consider tragedy and hope in modern Quaker thought. Together, the issue portrays liberal Quakerism as an evolving tradition shaped by reason, inward revelation, activism, and engagement across religious boundaries.

  • Issue #11, Spring 2005 (9)

    Examines Quaker identity through the tensions between tradition and change, theological diversity and shared belief, and pacifist ideals and political realities. Marking the centennial of North Carolina Yearly Meeting (Conservative), it recounts that body’s separation over revivalism, church discipline, and the preservation of traditional worship. Other articles ask whether a coherent core Quaker theology exists, trace a journey toward progressive religious radicalism, and critique the boundaries of academic Quaker theory. Historical and theological studies explore divisions among British Friends during World War I and liberal Christian responses to militarism and political power. Reviews of spiritual memoirs further consider departure, healing, forgiveness, and the search for an authentic religious voice.

  • Issue #12, Fall 2005 (6)

    Confronts the misuse of religious belief in relation to environmental destruction, nationalism, prophecy, and war. Its central essay challenges Western ideas of progress and individual moral supremacy, tracing how they have contributed to ecological devastation, social disorder, and spiritual crisis while calling for a transformed relationship with the natural world. Other contributions expose the historical distortions and political agenda of Christian nationalist history, critically assess a modern claim of divinely dictated prophecy, and trace the Quaker influence on the early pacifism of the Assemblies of God. Together, the issue examines how theology can either legitimize domination and illusion or foster humility, historical honesty, ecological responsibility, and peace.

  • Issue #13, Winter 2007 (9)

    Examines the authority of Scripture, inward revelation, and inherited tradition within a religious community marked by theological diversity. Its central account of Tom Fox traces how the Sermon on the Mount shaped his growth from military musician to Quaker peaceworker and ultimately to martyrdom in Iraq. Other articles explore Quaker understandings of spiritual rather than water baptism, the role of the Inner Light in Hicksite and Progressive reform, and the place of nontheism among contemporary Friends. Responses and reviews debate environmental theology, Conservative Quaker tradition, biblical interpretation, and the meaning of failed prophecy. Together, the issue asks how Friends can test spiritual claims while remaining open to continuing revelation, faithful witness, and honest theological disagreement.

  • Issue #14, Fall-Winter 2007-2008 (9)

    Centers on Scripture, interpretation, and the ways religious texts shape personal identity, public ethics, and interfaith relations. Its contributors trace Quaker approaches to the Bible from George Fox’s Spirit-led reading through later evangelical and liberal divisions, applying those differences to contemporary debates over sexuality and environmental responsibility. Other essays compare Quaker engagement with the Bible and Qur’an, reflect on Jesus and the meaning of “the Human Being,” and explore both theistic and nontheistic ways of imagining God. Personal testimony from a gay Quaker places love, discipleship, and hope within these interpretive struggles. A review of literature on American torture connects theological reflection with Quaker witness against institutional violence. Together, the issue presents scriptural interpretation as a living practice with profound spiritual, social, and political consequences.

  • Issue #15, Winter-Spring 2008 (10)

    Explores inward spiritual transformation alongside the moral pressures of war and militarism. Essays reinterpret early Quaker salvation through modern psychology, examine John Woolman’s mystical vision as a source of social witness, and compare Quaker silence with Pentecostal speaking in tongues as different paths to direct experience of the Spirit. Reviews of introductory Quaker studies and Shaker spirituality consider how religious identity is understood and embodied in community, simplicity, and work. A substantial group of contributions confronts the post-9/11 military world through accounts of torture, religiously justified warfare, critiques of American power, and the reflections of a Quaker-influenced soldier serving in Iraq. Together, the issue connects inward renewal with the difficult outward demands of conscience, peace, and resistance to oppression.

  • Issue #16, Fall 2009 (10)

    Issue #16, marking the tenth anniversary of *Quaker Theology*, examines contested understandings of Quaker history, identity, and witness. Several contributions debate whether holiness provides the central interpretive key to Quakerism, with particular attention to mysticism, revivalism, Hannah Whitall Smith, and the divisions produced by the nineteenth-century holiness movement. Other articles challenge idealized accounts of Quaker racial justice, explore Howard Thurman’s relationship with Friends, and trace a personal journey from studying psychological warfare to embracing Quaker nonviolence. Studies of the early Quaker metaphors of Light and Seed illuminate how spiritual language shaped the movement’s theology, while the controversy surrounding Philip Gulley raises continuing questions about universalism, Christian orthodoxy, and Jesus as a model for compassionate living.

  • Issue #17, Spring-Summer 2010 (10)

    Examines how Quaker faith is learned, practiced, renewed, and translated into effective witness. Its contributors call for stronger religious education among Young Friends and describe Quaker truth as something enacted through individual discipline, meeting discernment, yearly meeting structures, and informal networks of concern. Historical and contemporary studies explore Howard Brinton’s ecumenical work, emerging young Quaker voices, and a progressive mystical theology centered on brokenness, tenderness, divine love, and peacemaking. Several reviews confront the practical demands of peace activism, including hostage-taking in Iraq, the need to understand war strategically, and the relationship between militarism and climate crisis. Together, the issue argues that faithful witness requires theological knowledge, disciplined community, careful preparation, and sustained engagement with the forces producing violence.

  • Issue #18, Fall-Winter 2011 (10)

    Examines the challenges of preserving Quaker identity while pursuing institutional renewal, cultural change, reconciliation, and growth across different societies. Its contributors assess whether the American Friends Service Committee can reconnect with its Quaker foundations, revisit the history of Friends’ involvement in African-American education, and explore the development of an authentic French Quakerism. Studies of Midwestern conflicts and nineteenth-century divisions address tensions involving doctrine, authority, congregational autonomy, and LGBTQ inclusion while calling Friends away from the “spirit of separation.” Other essays consider why efforts to transform culture often produce limited or unintended results and present forgiveness, reconciliation, and relationship-building as foundations for peacemaking after extreme violence. Together, the issue asks how Friends can pursue change without losing either their spiritual roots or their communal bonds.

  • Issue #19, Spring-Summer 2011 (7)

    Examines Quaker vitality, institutional conflict, and the preservation of religious identity. Its contributors revisit the “evolutionary potential” of Quakerism through the socially innovative visions of Kenneth Boulding and John Bellers, while a comparison with Amish communities asks why Friends have struggled to retain young people and maintain a distinctive culture. The continuing conflict within Indiana Yearly Meeting over LGBTQ inclusion exposes tensions involving scriptural interpretation, institutional authority, and the threat of division. Reviews of Maurice Creasey’s theology and Mother Teresa’s troubled spiritual life explore questions of faith, doubt, suffering, poverty, and religious witness. Together, the issue asks whether Quakerism can renew its social imagination and communal strength while navigating profound theological and cultural disagreements.

  • Issue #20, Winter-Spring 2012 (9)

    Focuses on two forms of conflict confronting contemporary Christians and Friends: division within the church and participation in national warfare. Several contributions document the approaching split in Indiana Yearly Meeting over LGBTQ inclusion, biblical authority, congregational autonomy, and institutional control, portraying the separation as a painful Quaker “divorce.” A second group challenges the alliance between American evangelical Christianity and militarism through reviews, excerpts, and an interview with antiwar theologian Laurence Vance, who condemns religious support for the warfare state. The issue also presents Michael Birkel’s translation of Robert Barclay’s historical defense of Quakerism, connecting present disputes with the tradition’s long history of theological controversy. Together, the issue examines how Christians justify conflict—and whether faith can instead sustain conscience, peace, and integrity amid profound disagreement.

  • Issue #21, Autumn 2012 (8)

    Examines the future of Quakerism through studies of institutional conflict, liberal religion, ecological radicalism, historical witness, and changing patterns of religious affiliation. Continued reporting on the proposed division of Indiana Yearly Meeting documents disputes over scriptural authority, LGBTQ inclusion, organizational control, finances, and the meaning of Quaker unity. An analysis of Rufus Jones and Thomas Kelly presents their mysticism and social activism as movements beyond conventional religious liberalism, while a review of contemporary American religion considers the wider forces affecting Quaker membership and growth. Other contributions critically assess violent ecological resistance and recover William Bartram’s moral vision as a Quaker botanist attentive to nature and Indigenous knowledge. Together, the issue asks how Friends can respond faithfully to institutional division, religious change, and environmental crisis.

  • Issue #22 – Winter/Spring 2013 (9)

    Surveys Quaker history, division, cultural influence, and peace witness across several centuries and continents. Continued coverage of Indiana Yearly Meeting documents its formal separation into conservative and progressive bodies over authority, theology, and LGBTQ inclusion. Studies of Howard and Anna Brinton examine their influential role in reshaping twentieth-century liberal Quaker identity, while a chart of 350 years of North American Friends places recurring schisms within a broader historical pattern. Other contributions explore grassroots Quaker peacebuilding in East Africa, the complicated relationship between Quaker silence and slavery in two abolitionist novels, and the ways music can participate in both violence and resistance. Together, the issue challenges simplified accounts of Quaker unity, abolitionism, and peacemaking while recovering the complex people and practices through which the tradition has evolved.

  • Issue #23, Summer-Fall 2013 (8)

    Explores overlooked histories of Quaker reform, the relationship between theology and social action, and the continuing struggle over equality within the Society of Friends. Articles recover the influence of nineteenth-century Progressive Friends on democracy, feminism, spiritualism, interfaith cooperation, and modern liberal Quakerism, while a study of Battle Creek shows liberal sectarian movements shaping religion, reform, health culture, and industry. Reviews reassess early Quaker pacifism and the mixed record of the American Friends Service Committee’s interracial activism. Contemporary conflict appears in a Kenyan Friends statement condemning homosexuality, placed within the broader legal, cultural, and international forces sustaining anti-LGBT attitudes. Excerpts from John Calvi’s work offer a personal theology of healing, hope, fear, and divine love. Together, the issue considers how spiritual conviction becomes—or fails to become—liberating social practice.

  • Issue #24 – Winter-Spring 2014 (9)

    Examines human nature, religious authority, civil resistance, and divisions over LGBTQ inclusion within contemporary Quakerism. A recovered essay by Angelina Grimké rejects inherited guilt and presents humanity as developing morally and intellectually under a loving God, while a study of early Friends describes their teaching on perfection as a “third way” between Pelagian self-reliance and Augustinian depravity. Historical reflection on William Penn’s trial connects early Quaker resistance to unlawful-assembly laws with North Carolina’s Moral Monday protests. Reports from Kenya, Northwest Yearly Meeting, and the newly divided Indiana Yearly Meeting reveal differing cultural and institutional responses to homosexuality, biblical authority, and church governance. A review of *The Oxford Handbook of Quaker Studies* further raises questions about scholarly accessibility, cost, and whose experiences are represented in accounts of Quakerism.

  • Issue #25 – Summer-Fall 2014 (12)

    Marking the journal’s fifteenth anniversary, crosses historical, geographical, and religious boundaries to examine reform, peace, forgiveness, and spiritual authority. Several contributions recover the Progressive Friends and their influence on abolition, women’s rights, spiritualism, liberal theology, and modern Quaker identity, while studies of early antislavery rhetoric and Francis Howgill reconsider foundational Quaker texts and their later interpretation. An exchange concerning a Khmer Rouge survivor explores forgiveness, letting go, justice, memory, and trauma through Buddhist, Christian, and Jewish perspectives. Other articles present a Cuban Quaker reflection on faith amid political and economic hardship, document peace activism surrounding Fort Bragg and the Iraq War, and debate whether Evangelical efforts to recover early Quakerism subordinate immediate spiritual guidance to scriptural authority. Together, the issue portrays Quaker faith as an evolving conversation between historical inheritance, radical reform, interreligious encounter, and practical peacemaking.

  • Issue #26 — Preview (2)

    This preview of Issue #26 reports on the escalating conflict within North Carolina Yearly Meeting–FUM that threatened to divide the body. Years of declining membership and finances intensified disputes over doctrine, mission, marriage, LGBTQ inclusion, institutional authority, and control of property and resources. Conservative evangelical meetings sought stronger doctrinal conformity and the exclusion of more liberal or universalist congregations, while targeted meetings resisted what they regarded as an attempted purge. Together, the reports document the early stages of a major North Carolina Quaker schism and the theological, organizational, and financial pressures driving it.

  • Issue #26 — Winter-Spring 2015 (9)

    Examines conflict, institutional decline, and competing visions of renewal within contemporary Quakerism. Extensive documentation of the North Carolina Yearly Meeting–FUM crisis traces disputes over biblical authority, Christian doctrine, marriage, discipline, diversity, finances, and demands to separate from dissenting meetings. Other contributions evaluate a “convergent” model that seeks to renew Friends by blending traditions within a participatory culture, and reconsider the history of Pendle Hill as it shifted from an intellectually rigorous, socially engaged community toward retreat, personal spirituality, and ecological concerns. A theological debate challenges interpretations of early Quakerism based primarily on delayed apocalyptic expectation, emphasizing instead the persistent tension between spiritual unity and doctrinal enforcement. Together, the issue asks whether renewal comes through convergence, prophetic community, institutional reform, or stricter theological boundaries—and what may be lost through each choice.

  • Issue #27 — Summer-Fall 2015 (11)

    Takes “release” as a revealing theme, examining both faithful liberation and institutional expulsion within Quaker history and practice. Reports from Northwest and North Carolina Yearly Meetings document conflicts over LGBTQ inclusion, doctrinal conformity, church authority, and whether unity requires theological uniformity, including the expulsion of West Hills Friends Meeting. Historical studies explore Friends as a transnational “holy nation” resisting state demands and revisit Mary Dyer’s martyrdom through fiction and drama. Other contributions test the boundaries of liberal Quaker tolerance through belief in extraterrestrial contact, criticize vague appeals to “transformation,” and consider sustainability as a spiritual and communal discipline. Together, the issue asks who or what Quaker communities are willing to release—and whether that act produces freedom, renewal, exclusion, or loss.

  • Issue #28 — Spring-Summer 2016 (13)

    Explores dialogue, death, remembrance, marriage, and conflict through Quaker practices of attention, discernment, and faithful witness. An account of interfaith education shows how silence, lived experience, and universal grace can build understanding across religious differences. Several contributions reflect on dying through Peg Morton’s deliberate decision to end her life by fasting and through a memoir of love, dementia, loss, and spiritual transformation. Memorial pieces honor Tom Fox’s journey from military service to nonviolent peacemaking and preserve his reflections on compassion amid violence. Other articles support same-sex marriage and report continuing schisms in North Carolina and Northwest Yearly Meetings over LGBTQ inclusion and doctrinal authority. A historical study of Walt Whitman further explores Quaker, transcendentalist, and perfectionist influences. Together, the issue asks how attentive presence can sustain community through difference, suffering, love, and death.

  • Issue #29 — Summer-Fall 2016 (9)

    Examines institutional survival, spiritual formation, psychological influence, and neglected episodes of Quaker history. Reports and documents from North Carolina Yearly Meeting describe its decision to step back from schism and attempted purges in favor of reorganization, while acknowledging continued theological division and declining youth participation. Other contributions assess how psychoanalysis and popular psychology have reshaped liberal Quaker spirituality, and review a contemporary account of the Quaker journey centered on divine love. A personal narrative links evolving faith with land, Buddhism, and environmental responsibility. Historical studies recover American Quaker aid to Japanese and Japanese-American communities and reconsider Whittaker Chambers’s marginalized place among Friends during the Alger Hiss controversy. Together, the issue asks how Quaker identity is formed, contested, remembered, and sustained across institutional, spiritual, cultural, and political change.

  • Issue #30 & #31 — Winter-Spring 2017 & Summer-Fall 2017 (23)

    Issues #30–31 examine Quaker resistance, dissent, peace testimony, and institutional division across several centuries. Historical pieces recover Benjamin Lay’s revolutionary abolitionism, Lucretia Mott’s perseverance amid Quaker opposition, Friends’ resistance during the Stuart Restoration, divisions over World War I, and everyday acts of defiance during the Vietnam era. Profiles of Ham Sok Hon, Jim Corbett, Joseph Southall, Milton Mayer, Richard Nixon, and Tom Fox explore varied relationships between faith, political power, pacifism, and prophetic witness. Contemporary reports trace major Quaker separations in North Carolina, the Northwest, and Wilmington over LGBTQ inclusion, theology, and church authority. Other reflections consider captivity, militarism, resistance, and the changing meaning of the Peace Testimony.

  • Issue #32, Summer 2018 (13)

    Presents a historical examination of the American Friends Service Committee and its recurring struggles with finances, governance, professionalization, political identity, and accountability to the Religious Society of Friends. Documents and reflections spanning several decades trace concerns about declining Quaker participation, staff and board power, institutional elitism, and the weakening of an explicitly spiritual foundation. Case studies explore AFSC’s response to the Cold War, its treatment of Whittaker Chambers, and the enduring influence of *Speak Truth to Power*. Repeated efforts at reform reveal cycles of hope and disappointment. Together, the issue asks whether AFSC can recover a distinctive Quaker identity while remaining an effective organization for peace, justice, and service.

  • Issue #33, Winter 2019 (6)

    Issue #33, published during the journal’s twentieth anniversary, examines theology as a force shaping conscience, power, social justice, and institutional division. An essay on Reinhold Niebuhr, Martin Luther King Jr., and Malcolm X compares their responses to racism and political power while confronting white evangelical support for Trumpism. A recovered 1858 sermon by Lucretia Mott proclaims the inward kingdom of God, religious liberty, and respect for conscience. Two reports document the recent “separation generation” of American Friends, focusing on divisions in Wilmington, Indiana, Northwest, and North Carolina Yearly Meetings over LGBTQ inclusion, biblical interpretation, and institutional authority. Together, the issue shows why theology matters: beliefs about Scripture, power, equality, and conscience produce concrete consequences for both public witness and Quaker community.

  • Issue #34 – Spring 2020 (9)

    Examines the tension between Quaker faith and the social, political, and institutional powers surrounding it. A case study from Orange County follows a small Friends church whose ministry with homeless people brought it into conflict with local authorities and its own evangelical denomination. Personal narratives explore music, paradox, direct spiritual experience, and the development of pacifism during the Vietnam War. Historical contributions confront the disturbing involvement of Quaker minister Daisy Douglas Barr in the Ku Klux Klan and review the political thought of William Penn and John Dickinson on liberty, conscience, and government. A concluding reflection on Quaker House considers the theological demands of maintaining a peace witness within military culture. Together, the issue asks whether Quaker institutions will serve compassion and conscience or accommodate exclusion, property, nationalism, and power.